Crassus at Carrhae 53 BC: Surena's Camel-Borne Arrows and a Severed Head

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Marcus Licinius Crassus was the richest man in the Roman Republic and one third of the First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Pompey. He had crushed Spartacus only to see Pompey take the credit, and by the 50s BC he watched both partners win military glory. After meetings at Luca and Ravenna around 56 BC, he took the governorship of Syria to launch an unprovoked war on Parthia, encouraged by Caesar and condemned by Cicero. As he left Rome in late 55 BC, the tribune Ateius Capito lit a brazier at the gate and cursed the expedition. Crassus brought his son Publius, a decorated cavalry officer from Gaul, with 1,000 Gallic horsemen.

Crassus wintered in Syria, turned down Artavasdes II of Armenia's offer of a mountain route and 40,000 troops, and trusted the guide Ariamnes, who was in Parthian pay. In spring 53 BC near Carrhae, his roughly 42,000 men met the general Surena's 10,000 horsemen. Cataphracts dropped their cloaks amid booming drums, the Romans formed a hollow square, and horse archers shot through shields while 1,000 camels kept them resupplied with arrows. Publius was lured away and died, and his head was paraded on a spear. Crassus was later killed at a parley his own mutinous men forced on him.

• Ancient legend says the Parthians poured molten gold down Crassus's throat to mock his greed.
• Historian Erich Gruen argues Crassus sought Parthian wealth for the Roman treasury rather than for himself.
• Fleeing at night, the Romans left about 4,000 wounded behind, and the Parthians killed them all the next morning.
• About 20,000 Romans died and 10,000 were captured, along with several legionary eagles.
• Crassus's head was reportedly used as a prop in a performance of Euripides' Bacchae at a royal banquet.