Dutch East India Company: Banda Nutmeg Massacre, Grotius and Dejima

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Fighting the Eighty Years' War against Habsburg Spain, the Dutch were shut out of Lisbon's spice market after Portugal joined the Spanish crown. Cornelis de Houtman obtained Portuguese routes, early voyages returned 400 percent profits, and in 1602 the government merged rival ventures into the VOC, a joint stock company empowered to build forts, mint money, sign treaties and wage war. In 1603 it seized the Portuguese ship Santa Catarina off Singapore, nearly doubling its capital, and hired Hugo Grotius, whose Freedom of the Seas justified the capture. To monopolize nutmeg, grown only in the Banda Islands, Jan Pieterszoon Coen's forces killed 2,800 Bandanese and enslaved 1,700 between 1609 and 1621.

The VOC built a network of choke points from Batavia, took Malacca and Ceylon from Portugal, and kept a 215-year trade link with Japan from the island of Dejima, though Koxinga's Ming forces drove it from Taiwan. The West India Company, founded in 1621, pursued a Grand Design to seize Brazilian sugar and African slave ports like Elmina and Luanda, but lost Brazil by 1654 and kept Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire and St. Martin. A Cape victualling station of 1652 grew into Boer settlement and the Xhosa Wars. England's 1651 Navigation Acts, the Anglo-Dutch wars and French occupation eroded the empire. After Japan invaded in 1942, Sukarno declared independence, recognized in December 1949, and Suriname followed in 1975.

• The Heeren XVII directors in Amsterdam judged success by monopoly enforcement, treating war as overhead.
• Japan's shogunate expelled the Catholic Portuguese but kept the Dutch, who left religion out of trade.
• The 1814 and 1824 Anglo-Dutch treaties returned Java and Suriname but left Britain the Cape, Ceylon and Malaya.
• Roughly 20 percent of modern Indonesian vocabulary traces to Dutch loanwords.
• Players of Surinamese descent, from Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard to Virgil van Dijk, reshaped the Dutch national team.